Dear R-help, Like several other subscribers, I have recently encountered a problem whereby R will execute code apparently correctly and without error, but any subsequent command will yield "Error: bad value" so that R has to be killed and restarted. We have checked this out with a few different operating systems (Windows XP/Vista and Linux) and with different versions of R. We have established the following: 1. The error occurs with versions of R from 2.5.0 onwards on all the OSs we have tried, but not with earlier versions of R. 2. The error is not reproducable between machines - identical code will fail at different points on two different machines. 3. The error is not related to contributed packages, because our code doesn't use any. The code *does*, however, use repeated calls to optim() and nlm(), and passes several arguments through a sequence of functions using "...". 4. Occasionally, we get an error relating to subset replacement instead of "Error:bad value". For example: > x <- rnorm(10) > x[1] <- 3 Error in x[1] <- 3 : could not find function "[<-" 5. The error behaviour changes as a result of minor modifications to print() statements in the code e.g. by inserting a line that prints the value of a well-defined variable. I suspect this really *is* a bug (particularly since it only started happening with version 2.5.0), but I figure it would be worth giving people a chance to tell me I'm an idiot before reporting it as such. In case anybody would like to try and see the error for themselves, I have uploaded some files to http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc/Rtest/. The file ErrorDemo.r is the main script - see the file header there for more details. Files momfit.r and elmstats.dat are also required for this example to work. I'm sorry that it isn't a very simple example, but I haven't seen a simple illustration of the problem (and I couldn't find any examples in the list archives either). With best wishes to all, Richard ===================================================================== Richard E. Chandler ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Room 135, Dept of Statistical Science, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London WC1E 6BT, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7679 1880 Fax: +44 (0)20 7383 4703 Internet: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Stats (department) http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc (personal) email: richard at stats.ucl.ac.uk
"Error: bad value" problem
11 messages · Richard E. Chandler, Peter Dalgaard, Rolf Turner +3 more
On 18/12/2008, at 11:34 AM, Richard E. Chandler wrote:
Dear R-help, Like several other subscribers, I have recently encountered a problem whereby R will execute code apparently correctly and without error, but any subsequent command will yield "Error: bad value" so that R has to be killed and restarted. We have checked this out with a few different operating systems (Windows XP/Vista and Linux) and with different versions of R. We have established the following: 1. The error occurs with versions of R from 2.5.0 onwards on all the OSs we have tried, but not with earlier versions of R. 2. The error is not reproducable between machines - identical code will fail at different points on two different machines. 3. The error is not related to contributed packages, because our code doesn't use any. The code *does*, however, use repeated calls to optim() and nlm(), and passes several arguments through a sequence of functions using "...". 4. Occasionally, we get an error relating to subset replacement instead of "Error:bad value". For example:
x <- rnorm(10) x[1] <- 3
Error in x[1] <- 3 : could not find function "[<-" 5. The error behaviour changes as a result of minor modifications to print() statements in the code e.g. by inserting a line that prints the value of a well-defined variable. I suspect this really *is* a bug (particularly since it only started happening with version 2.5.0), but I figure it would be worth giving people a chance to tell me I'm an idiot before reporting it as such. In case anybody would like to try and see the error for themselves, I have uploaded some files to http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc/Rtest/. The file ErrorDemo.r is the main script - see the file header there for more details. Files momfit.r and elmstats.dat are also required for this example to work. I'm sorry that it isn't a very simple example, but I haven't seen a simple illustration of the problem (and I couldn't find any examples in the list archives either).
I can confirm that the error occurs.
I downloaded the files and sourced ``ErrorDemo.R''. Doing x <- rnorm(10)
after doing so triggered the error. Subsequently attempting traceback()
(or anything else) simply triggered the error again.
Good luck to R Core in tracking this down!
cheers,
Rolf Turner
######################################################################
Attention:\ This e-mail message is privileged and confid...{{dropped:9}}
Rolf Turner wrote:
On 18/12/2008, at 11:34 AM, Richard E. Chandler wrote:
Dear R-help, Like several other subscribers, I have recently encountered a problem whereby R will execute code apparently correctly and without error, but any subsequent command will yield "Error: bad value" so that R has to be killed and restarted. We have checked this out with a few different operating systems (Windows XP/Vista and Linux) and with different versions of R. We have established the following: 1. The error occurs with versions of R from 2.5.0 onwards on all the OSs we have tried, but not with earlier versions of R. 2. The error is not reproducable between machines - identical code will fail at different points on two different machines. 3. The error is not related to contributed packages, because our code doesn't use any. The code *does*, however, use repeated calls to optim() and nlm(), and passes several arguments through a sequence of functions using "...". 4. Occasionally, we get an error relating to subset replacement instead of "Error:bad value". For example:
x <- rnorm(10) x[1] <- 3
Error in x[1] <- 3 : could not find function "[<-" 5. The error behaviour changes as a result of minor modifications to print() statements in the code e.g. by inserting a line that prints the value of a well-defined variable. I suspect this really *is* a bug (particularly since it only started happening with version 2.5.0), but I figure it would be worth giving people a chance to tell me I'm an idiot before reporting it as such. In case anybody would like to try and see the error for themselves, I have uploaded some files to http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc/Rtest/. The file ErrorDemo.r is the main script - see the file header there for more details. Files momfit.r and elmstats.dat are also required for this example to work. I'm sorry that it isn't a very simple example, but I haven't seen a simple illustration of the problem (and I couldn't find any examples in the list archives either).
I can confirm that the error occurs. I downloaded the files and sourced ``ErrorDemo.R''. Doing x <- rnorm(10) after doing so triggered the error. Subsequently attempting traceback() (or anything else) simply triggered the error again. Good luck to R Core in tracking this down!
Unfortunately, there's at least on R Core member for which it does NOT happen... Fedora 9 i686, R 2.8.0 and 2.8.1 RC (2008-12-15 r47214)
O__ ---- Peter Dalgaard ?ster Farimagsgade 5, Entr.B c/ /'_ --- Dept. of Biostatistics PO Box 2099, 1014 Cph. K (*) \(*) -- University of Copenhagen Denmark Ph: (+45) 35327918 ~~~~~~~~~~ - (p.dalgaard at biostat.ku.dk) FAX: (+45) 35327907
On 17/12/2008 5:34 PM, Richard E. Chandler wrote:
Dear R-help, Like several other subscribers, I have recently encountered a problem whereby R will execute code apparently correctly and without error, but any subsequent command will yield "Error: bad value" so that R has to be killed and restarted. We have checked this out with a few different operating systems (Windows XP/Vista and Linux) and with different versions of R. We have established the following:
The symptoms you describe suggest an out of bounds read or write. Unfortunately, I don't see the error, in R-devel or R 2.8.0. Tracking this sort of bug down on Windows is pretty hard, because as far as I know valgrind doesn't run on Windows, and I don't know of any Windows equivalent that supports gcc. So I'm not going to be able to help...other than to suggest reducing the example to something that runs quickly, then try running it after running gctorture(). That often flushes out hard to reproduce bugs, but it goes very slowly... Duncan Murdoch
1. The error occurs with versions of R from 2.5.0 onwards on all the OSs we have tried, but not with earlier versions of R. 2. The error is not reproducable between machines - identical code will fail at different points on two different machines. 3. The error is not related to contributed packages, because our code doesn't use any. The code *does*, however, use repeated calls to optim() and nlm(), and passes several arguments through a sequence of functions using "...". 4. Occasionally, we get an error relating to subset replacement instead of "Error:bad value". For example:
> x <- rnorm(10) > x[1] <- 3
Error in x[1] <- 3 : could not find function "[<-" 5. The error behaviour changes as a result of minor modifications to print() statements in the code e.g. by inserting a line that prints the value of a well-defined variable. I suspect this really *is* a bug (particularly since it only started happening with version 2.5.0), but I figure it would be worth giving people a chance to tell me I'm an idiot before reporting it as such. In case anybody would like to try and see the error for themselves, I have uploaded some files to http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc/Rtest/. The file ErrorDemo.r is the main script - see the file header there for more details. Files momfit.r and elmstats.dat are also required for this example to work. I'm sorry that it isn't a very simple example, but I haven't seen a simple illustration of the problem (and I couldn't find any examples in the list archives either). With best wishes to all, Richard ===================================================================== Richard E. Chandler ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Room 135, Dept of Statistical Science, University College London, 1-19 Torrington Place, London WC1E 6BT, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7679 1880 Fax: +44 (0)20 7383 4703 Internet: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/Stats (department) http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc (personal) email: richard at stats.ucl.ac.uk
______________________________________________ R-help at r-project.org mailing list https://stat.ethz.ch/mailman/listinfo/r-help PLEASE do read the posting guide http://www.R-project.org/posting-guide.html and provide commented, minimal, self-contained, reproducible code.
On 18/12/2008, at 1:09 PM, Peter Dalgaard wrote:
Rolf Turner wrote:
<snip>
I can confirm that the error occurs. I downloaded the files and sourced ``ErrorDemo.R''. Doing x <- rnorm(10) after doing so triggered the error. Subsequently attempting traceback() (or anything else) simply triggered the error again. Good luck to R Core in tracking this down!
Unfortunately, there's at least on R Core member for which it does NOT happen... Fedora 9 i686, R 2.8.0 and 2.8.1 RC (2008-12-15 r47214)
I should've included my session info:
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20)
i386-apple-darwin8.11.1
locale:
C
attached base packages:
[1] datasets utils stats graphics grDevices methods base
other attached packages:
[1] misc_0.0-9 fortunes_1.3-5 MASS_7.2-44
So it's happening to me with R 2.8.0 --- but under Mac OSX, rather than
Fedora.
cheers,
Rolf
######################################################################
Attention:\ This e-mail message is privileged and confid...{{dropped:9}}
Peter Dalgaard wrote:
Rolf Turner wrote:
On 18/12/2008, at 11:34 AM, Richard E. Chandler wrote:
Dear R-help, Like several other subscribers, I have recently encountered a problem whereby R will execute code apparently correctly and without error, but any subsequent command will yield "Error: bad value" so that R has to be killed and restarted. We have checked this out with a few different operating systems (Windows XP/Vista and Linux) and with different versions of R. We have established the following: 1. The error occurs with versions of R from 2.5.0 onwards on all the OSs we have tried, but not with earlier versions of R. 2. The error is not reproducable between machines - identical code will fail at different points on two different machines. 3. The error is not related to contributed packages, because our code doesn't use any. The code *does*, however, use repeated calls to optim() and nlm(), and passes several arguments through a sequence of functions using "...". 4. Occasionally, we get an error relating to subset replacement instead of "Error:bad value". For example:
x <- rnorm(10) x[1] <- 3
Error in x[1] <- 3 : could not find function "[<-" 5. The error behaviour changes as a result of minor modifications to print() statements in the code e.g. by inserting a line that prints the value of a well-defined variable. I suspect this really *is* a bug (particularly since it only started happening with version 2.5.0), but I figure it would be worth giving people a chance to tell me I'm an idiot before reporting it as such. In case anybody would like to try and see the error for themselves, I have uploaded some files to http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~ucakarc/Rtest/. The file ErrorDemo.r is the main script - see the file header there for more details. Files momfit.r and elmstats.dat are also required for this example to work. I'm sorry that it isn't a very simple example, but I haven't seen a simple illustration of the problem (and I couldn't find any examples in the list archives either).
I can confirm that the error occurs. I downloaded the files and sourced ``ErrorDemo.R''. Doing x <- rnorm(10) after doing so triggered the error. Subsequently attempting traceback() (or anything else) simply triggered the error again. Good luck to R Core in tracking this down!
Unfortunately, there's at least on R Core member for which it does NOT happen... Fedora 9 i686, R 2.8.0 and 2.8.1 RC (2008-12-15 r47214)
Wrong, actually... It did happen when run with 2.8.0 and valgrind (but not without it). Unfortunately there were no errors from valgrind.... yuck!!! .... > a Error: bad value > > Save workspace image? [y/n/c]: n ==29050== ==29050== ERROR SUMMARY: 0 errors from 0 contexts (suppressed: 116 from 1) ==29050== malloc/free: in use at exit: 13,984,907 bytes in 10,061 blocks. ==29050== malloc/free: 117,023 allocs, 106,962 frees, 93,104,003 bytes allocated. ==29050== For counts of detected errors, rerun with: -v ==29050== searching for pointers to 10,061 not-freed blocks. ==29050== checked 14,502,208 bytes. ==29050== ==29050== LEAK SUMMARY: ==29050== definitely lost: 0 bytes in 0 blocks. ==29050== possibly lost: 0 bytes in 0 blocks. ==29050== still reachable: 13,984,907 bytes in 10,061 blocks. ==29050== suppressed: 0 bytes in 0 blocks. ==29050== Rerun with --leak-check=full to see details of leaked memory. [
O__ ---- Peter Dalgaard ?ster Farimagsgade 5, Entr.B c/ /'_ --- Dept. of Biostatistics PO Box 2099, 1014 Cph. K (*) \(*) -- University of Copenhagen Denmark Ph: (+45) 35327918 ~~~~~~~~~~ - (p.dalgaard at biostat.ku.dk) FAX: (+45) 35327907
I can get the errors to happen on Ubuntu 8.10 with R --vanilla (*without* valgrind) -- but editing momfit.r line 742 so that plot.progress=FALSE seems to make the problem go away. (This was a lucky guess, it looked like there was something odd going on with the plots.) Hope that helps someone ... Ben Bolker
sessionInfo()
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20) i486-pc-linux-gnu locale: LC_CTYPE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NUMERIC=C;LC_TIME=en_US.UTF-8;LC_COLLATE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_MONETARY=C;LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8;LC_PAPER=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NAME=C;LC_ADDRESS=C;LC_TELEPHONE=C;LC_MEASUREMENT=en_US.UTF-8;LC_IDENTIFICATION=C attached base packages: [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
View this message in context: http://www.nabble.com/%22Error%3A-bad-value%22-problem-tp21063091p21065458.html Sent from the R help mailing list archive at Nabble.com.
Ben Bolker wrote:
I can get the errors to happen on Ubuntu 8.10 with R --vanilla (*without* valgrind) -- but editing momfit.r line 742 so that plot.progress=FALSE seems to make the problem go away. (This was a lucky guess, it looked like there was something odd going on with the plots.) Hope that helps someone ...
Probably not. The problem is to reproduce the error state in a way so
that we can understand what is causing it.
I can debug this to
(gdb) bt
#0 Rf_error (format=0x8220c65 "bad value") at
../../../R/src/main/errors.c:704
#1 0x0805a924 in SETCDR (x=0x8f89348, y=0x9b276e8)
at ../../../R/src/main/memory.c:2728
#2 0x0819fa46 in GrowList (l=0x951e8f4, s=<value optimized out>) at
gram.y:958
#3 0x081a2a7b in xxvalue (v=0x8f89348, k=4, lloc=<value optimized out>)
at gram.y:440
and the problem in GrowList is that CAR(l) is R_NilValue (==0x8f89348),
which supposedly "cannot happen", and the thing that calls GrowList is
something with srcrefs (DuncanM?).
Digging deeper probably has to wait till the weekend for my part. (The
natural next step is figuring out how the R_NilValue got into that
location, but I should try to sleep off this cold....)
I'm CCing r-devel on this. Can we move the discussion there?
Ben Bolker
sessionInfo()
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20) i486-pc-linux-gnu locale: LC_CTYPE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NUMERIC=C;LC_TIME=en_US.UTF-8;LC_COLLATE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_MONETARY=C;LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8;LC_PAPER=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NAME=C;LC_ADDRESS=C;LC_TELEPHONE=C;LC_MEASUREMENT=en_US.UTF-8;LC_IDENTIFICATION=C attached base packages: [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
O__ ---- Peter Dalgaard ?ster Farimagsgade 5, Entr.B c/ /'_ --- Dept. of Biostatistics PO Box 2099, 1014 Cph. K (*) \(*) -- University of Copenhagen Denmark Ph: (+45) 35327918 ~~~~~~~~~~ - (p.dalgaard at biostat.ku.dk) FAX: (+45) 35327907
On 17/12/2008 8:56 PM, Peter Dalgaard wrote:
Ben Bolker wrote:
I can get the errors to happen on Ubuntu 8.10 with R --vanilla (*without* valgrind) -- but editing momfit.r line 742 so that plot.progress=FALSE seems to make the problem go away. (This was a lucky guess, it looked like there was something odd going on with the plots.) Hope that helps someone ...
Probably not. The problem is to reproduce the error state in a way so
that we can understand what is causing it.
I can debug this to
(gdb) bt
#0 Rf_error (format=0x8220c65 "bad value") at
../../../R/src/main/errors.c:704
#1 0x0805a924 in SETCDR (x=0x8f89348, y=0x9b276e8)
at ../../../R/src/main/memory.c:2728
#2 0x0819fa46 in GrowList (l=0x951e8f4, s=<value optimized out>) at
gram.y:958
#3 0x081a2a7b in xxvalue (v=0x8f89348, k=4, lloc=<value optimized out>)
at gram.y:440
and the problem in GrowList is that CAR(l) is R_NilValue (==0x8f89348),
which supposedly "cannot happen", and the thing that calls GrowList is
something with srcrefs (DuncanM?).
Digging deeper probably has to wait till the weekend for my part. (The
natural next step is figuring out how the R_NilValue got into that
location, but I should try to sleep off this cold....)
I'm CCing r-devel on this. Can we move the discussion there?
I can probably take a look tomorrow. I wasn't getting an error, but maybe I'll see the same corruption if I watch it run. Duncan Murdoch
Ben Bolker
sessionInfo()
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20) i486-pc-linux-gnu locale: LC_CTYPE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NUMERIC=C;LC_TIME=en_US.UTF-8;LC_COLLATE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_MONETARY=C;LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8;LC_PAPER=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NAME=C;LC_ADDRESS=C;LC_TELEPHONE=C;LC_MEASUREMENT=en_US.UTF-8;LC_IDENTIFICATION=C attached base packages: [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
On 17/12/2008 9:47 PM, Duncan Murdoch wrote:
On 17/12/2008 8:56 PM, Peter Dalgaard wrote:
Ben Bolker wrote:
I can get the errors to happen on Ubuntu 8.10 with R --vanilla (*without* valgrind) -- but editing momfit.r line 742 so that plot.progress=FALSE seems to make the problem go away. (This was a lucky guess, it looked like there was something odd going on with the plots.) Hope that helps someone ...
Probably not. The problem is to reproduce the error state in a way so
that we can understand what is causing it.
I can debug this to
(gdb) bt
#0 Rf_error (format=0x8220c65 "bad value") at
../../../R/src/main/errors.c:704
#1 0x0805a924 in SETCDR (x=0x8f89348, y=0x9b276e8)
at ../../../R/src/main/memory.c:2728
#2 0x0819fa46 in GrowList (l=0x951e8f4, s=<value optimized out>) at
gram.y:958
#3 0x081a2a7b in xxvalue (v=0x8f89348, k=4, lloc=<value optimized out>)
at gram.y:440
and the problem in GrowList is that CAR(l) is R_NilValue (==0x8f89348),
which supposedly "cannot happen", and the thing that calls GrowList is
something with srcrefs (DuncanM?).
Digging deeper probably has to wait till the weekend for my part. (The
natural next step is figuring out how the R_NilValue got into that
location, but I should try to sleep off this cold....)
I'm CCing r-devel on this. Can we move the discussion there?
I can probably take a look tomorrow. I wasn't getting an error, but maybe I'll see the same corruption if I watch it run.
I had time to see if I was getting a NilValue there tonight, and the answer was no, with the Windows RC. I don't get the error in any version I've tried on Windows, though I can see it in 2.8.0 on MacOSX. Duncan
Duncan Murdoch
Ben Bolker
sessionInfo()
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20) i486-pc-linux-gnu locale: LC_CTYPE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NUMERIC=C;LC_TIME=en_US.UTF-8;LC_COLLATE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_MONETARY=C;LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8;LC_PAPER=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NAME=C;LC_ADDRESS=C;LC_TELEPHONE=C;LC_MEASUREMENT=en_US.UTF-8;LC_IDENTIFICATION=C attached base packages: [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
______________________________________________ R-devel at r-project.org mailing list https://stat.ethz.ch/mailman/listinfo/r-devel
This has all the hallmarks of a bug I found and fixed in R-devel (r46998). I did not port the patch over to the R release branch because I could not reproduce the bug. In R-devel, I was seeing problems with "make test-Segfault". This would occasionally segfault, but most of the time would create the "bad value" error, and of course would also run perfectly fine a lot of the time. The error came from exactly the same place that Ben found. It was due to an invalid SrcRefs being used because SrcFile is not set to zero when it should be. I'll have a look and see if it is the same problem, or a close cousin. Martyn
On Wed, 2008-12-17 at 22:07 -0500, Duncan Murdoch wrote:
On 17/12/2008 9:47 PM, Duncan Murdoch wrote:
On 17/12/2008 8:56 PM, Peter Dalgaard wrote:
Ben Bolker wrote:
I can get the errors to happen on Ubuntu 8.10 with R --vanilla (*without* valgrind) -- but editing momfit.r line 742 so that plot.progress=FALSE seems to make the problem go away. (This was a lucky guess, it looked like there was something odd going on with the plots.) Hope that helps someone ...
Probably not. The problem is to reproduce the error state in a way so
that we can understand what is causing it.
I can debug this to
(gdb) bt
#0 Rf_error (format=0x8220c65 "bad value") at
../../../R/src/main/errors.c:704
#1 0x0805a924 in SETCDR (x=0x8f89348, y=0x9b276e8)
at ../../../R/src/main/memory.c:2728
#2 0x0819fa46 in GrowList (l=0x951e8f4, s=<value optimized out>) at
gram.y:958
#3 0x081a2a7b in xxvalue (v=0x8f89348, k=4, lloc=<value optimized out>)
at gram.y:440
and the problem in GrowList is that CAR(l) is R_NilValue (==0x8f89348),
which supposedly "cannot happen", and the thing that calls GrowList is
something with srcrefs (DuncanM?).
Digging deeper probably has to wait till the weekend for my part. (The
natural next step is figuring out how the R_NilValue got into that
location, but I should try to sleep off this cold....)
I'm CCing r-devel on this. Can we move the discussion there?
I can probably take a look tomorrow. I wasn't getting an error, but maybe I'll see the same corruption if I watch it run.
I had time to see if I was getting a NilValue there tonight, and the answer was no, with the Windows RC. I don't get the error in any version I've tried on Windows, though I can see it in 2.8.0 on MacOSX. Duncan
Duncan Murdoch
Ben Bolker
sessionInfo()
R version 2.8.0 (2008-10-20) i486-pc-linux-gnu locale: LC_CTYPE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NUMERIC=C;LC_TIME=en_US.UTF-8;LC_COLLATE=en_US.UTF-8;LC_MONETARY=C;LC_MESSAGES=en_US.UTF-8;LC_PAPER=en_US.UTF-8;LC_NAME=C;LC_ADDRESS=C;LC_TELEPHONE=C;LC_MEASUREMENT=en_US.UTF-8;LC_IDENTIFICATION=C attached base packages: [1] stats graphics grDevices utils datasets methods base
______________________________________________ R-devel at r-project.org mailing list https://stat.ethz.ch/mailman/listinfo/r-devel
______________________________________________ R-help at r-project.org mailing list https://stat.ethz.ch/mailman/listinfo/r-help PLEASE do read the posting guide http://www.R-project.org/posting-guide.html and provide commented, minimal, self-contained, reproducible code.
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