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[R-meta] Studies that use several formulas to capture the same outcome

Since 'formula' does not vary within studies, ~ 1 | study/formula is adding the study-level random effect twice and hence is redundant. But if you want to 'generalize beyond the set of formulas used', then I would not add it as a moderator either. One could consider adding it as a crossed random effect, that is random = list(~ 1 | study, ~ 1 | formula).

Best,
Wolfgang